Data Structures

Author
Affiliation
Jubayer Hossain

Founder & Instructor, CHIRAL Bangladesh

Published

December 28, 2022

One dimensional types (“vectors”)

Data Types

* Character: strings or individual characters, quoted
* Numeric: any real number(s)
* Integer: any integer(s)/whole numbers
* Factor: categorical/qualitative variables
* Logical: variables composed of TRUE or FALSE
* Date/POSIXct: represents calendar dates and times

Character and numeric

We have already covered character and numeric types.

class(c("tree", "cloud", "stars_&_sky"))
[1] "character"
class(c(1, 4, 7))
[1] "numeric"

Character and numeric

This can also be a bit tricky.

class(c(1, 2, "tree"))
[1] "character"
class(c("1", "4", "7"))
[1] "character"

Numeric Subclasses

There are two major numeric subclasses

  1. Integer
  2. Double

Integer

Integer is a special subset of numeric that contains only whole numbers.

x <- c(1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
class(x)
[1] "numeric"
typeof(x)
[1] "double"

Double

Double is a special subset of numeric that contains fractional values.

Double stands for double-precision

y <- c(1.1, 2.0, 3.2, 4.5, 5.6)
y
[1] 1.1 2.0 3.2 4.5 5.6
class(y)
[1] "numeric"
typeof(y)
[1] "double"

Checking double vs integer

A tibble will show the difference (as does glimpse())

tibble(xvar = x, yvar = y)
# A tibble: 5 × 2
   xvar  yvar
  <dbl> <dbl>
1     1   1.1
2     2   2  
3     3   3.2
4     4   4.5
5     5   5.6

Logical

logical is a type that only has two possible elements: TRUE and FALSE

x <- c(TRUE, FALSE, TRUE, TRUE, FALSE)
class(x)
[1] "logical"

Note that logical elements are NOT in quotes.

z <- c("TRUE", "FALSE", "TRUE", "FALSE")
class(z)
[1] "character"

General Class Information

There are two useful functions associated with practically all R classes:

  • is.CLASS_NAME(x) to logically check whether or not x is of certain class
  • as.CLASS_NAME(x) to coerce between classes x from current x class into a certain class

General Class Information: Checking

is.character(c(1, 4, 7))
[1] FALSE
is.numeric(c(1, 4, 7))
[1] TRUE
is.character(c("tree", "cloud"))
[1] TRUE
is.numeric(c("tree", "cloud"))
[1] FALSE

General Class Information: coercing

In some cases the coercing is seamless:

as.character(c(1, 4, 7))
[1] "1" "4" "7"
as.numeric(c("1", "4", "7"))
[1] 1 4 7
as.logical(c("TRUE", "FALSE", "FALSE"))
[1]  TRUE FALSE FALSE
as.integer(c(1.2, 3.7))
[1] 1 3
as.double(c(1, 2, 3))
[1] 1 2 3

General Class Information: coercing

In some cases the coercing is not possible; if executed, will return NA (an R constant representing “Not Available” i.e. missing value)

as.numeric(c("1", "4", "7a"))
Warning: NAs introduced by coercion
[1]  1  4 NA
as.logical(c("TRUE", "FALSE", "UNKNOWN"))
[1]  TRUE FALSE    NA
as.Date(c("2021-06-15", "2021-06-32"))
[1] "2021-06-15" NA

Factors

A factor is a special character vector where the elements have pre-defined groups or ‘levels’. You can think of these as qualitative or categorical variables. Use the factor() function to create factors.

x <- c("small", "mediam", "large", "medium", "large")
class(x)
[1] "character"
x_fact <- factor(x) # factor() is a function
class(x_fact)
[1] "factor"
x_fact
[1] small  mediam large  medium large 
Levels: large mediam medium small

Note that levels are, by default, in alphanumerical order!

Factors

You can learn what are the unique levels of a factor vector

levels(x_fact)
[1] "large"  "mediam" "medium" "small"

More on how to change the levels ordering in a lecture coming up!

Factors

Factors can be converted to numeric or character very easily.

x_fact
[1] small  mediam large  medium large 
Levels: large mediam medium small
as.character(x_fact)
[1] "small"  "mediam" "large"  "medium" "large" 
as.numeric(x_fact)
[1] 4 2 1 3 1

Useful functions to create vectors rep()

For character: rep() can create very long vectors. Works for creating character and numeric vectors.

The each argument specifies how many of each item you want repeated. The times argument specifies how many times you want the vector repeated.

rep(c("black", "white"), each = 3)
[1] "black" "black" "black" "white" "white" "white"
rep(c("black", "white"), times = 3)
[1] "black" "white" "black" "white" "black" "white"
rep(c("black", "white"), each = 2, times = 2)
[1] "black" "black" "white" "white" "black" "black" "white" "white"

Useful functions to create vectors seq()

For numeric: seq() can be very useful- both integer and double.
The from argument says what number to start on.
The to argument says what number to not go above.
The by argument says how much to increment by.
The length.out argument says how long the vector should be overall.

seq(from = 0, to = 1, by = 0.2)
[1] 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
seq(from = 0, to = 10, by = 1)
 [1]  0  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9 10
seq(from = -5, to = 5, length.out = 10)
 [1] -5.0000000 -3.8888889 -2.7777778 -1.6666667 -0.5555556  0.5555556
 [7]  1.6666667  2.7777778  3.8888889  5.0000000

Creating numeric vectors sample()

You can use the sample() function to make a random sequence. The x argument specifies what you are sampling from. The size argument specifies how many values there should be. The replace argument specifies if values should be replaced or not.

seq_hun <- seq(from = 0, to = 100, by = 1)
seq_hun
  [1]   0   1   2   3   4   5   6   7   8   9  10  11  12  13  14  15  16  17
 [19]  18  19  20  21  22  23  24  25  26  27  28  29  30  31  32  33  34  35
 [37]  36  37  38  39  40  41  42  43  44  45  46  47  48  49  50  51  52  53
 [55]  54  55  56  57  58  59  60  61  62  63  64  65  66  67  68  69  70  71
 [73]  72  73  74  75  76  77  78  79  80  81  82  83  84  85  86  87  88  89
 [91]  90  91  92  93  94  95  96  97  98  99 100
y <- sample(x = seq_hun, size = 5, replace = TRUE)
y
[1] 39  8 55  8 96

Summary

  • There are two types of numeric class objects: integer and double
  • Logic class objects only have TRUE or False (without quotes)
  • is.CLASS_NAME(x) can be used to test the class of an object x
  • as.CLASS_NAME(x) can be used to change the class of an object x
  • Factors are a special character class that has levels - more on that soon!
  • The repeat rep() function helps you create vectors with the to and from arguments
  • The sequence seq() function helps you create numeric vectors (from,to, by, and length.out arguments)
  • seq() can be used for integers or double numeric vectors (by argument)
  • sample() makes random vectors. Can be used for integers or double depending on what it is sampling from.
  • tibbles show column classes!

Lab Part 1

🏠 Class Website
💻 Lab

Two-dimensional data classes

Two-dimensional data classes

Two-dimensional classes are those we would often use to store data read from a file

  • a data frame (data.frame or tibble class)

  • a matrix (matrix class)

    • also composed of rows and columns
    • unlike data.frame or tibble, the entire matrix is composed of one R class
    • for example: all entries are numeric, or all entries are character

Matrices

as.matrix() creates a matrix from a data frame (where all values are the same class). matrix() creates a matrix from scratch.

head(iris)
  Sepal.Length Sepal.Width Petal.Length Petal.Width Species
1          5.1         3.5          1.4         0.2  setosa
2          4.9         3.0          1.4         0.2  setosa
3          4.7         3.2          1.3         0.2  setosa
4          4.6         3.1          1.5         0.2  setosa
5          5.0         3.6          1.4         0.2  setosa
6          5.4         3.9          1.7         0.4  setosa
class(iris)
[1] "data.frame"
iris_mat <- head(tibble(select(iris, -Species)))
as.matrix(iris_mat)
     Sepal.Length Sepal.Width Petal.Length Petal.Width
[1,]          5.1         3.5          1.4         0.2
[2,]          4.9         3.0          1.4         0.2
[3,]          4.7         3.2          1.3         0.2
[4,]          4.6         3.1          1.5         0.2
[5,]          5.0         3.6          1.4         0.2
[6,]          5.4         3.9          1.7         0.4
matrix(1:6, ncol = 2)
     [,1] [,2]
[1,]    1    4
[2,]    2    5
[3,]    3    6

Lists

  • One other data type that is the most generic are `lists
  • Can be created using list()
  • Can hold vectors, strings, matrices, models, list of other list!
mylist <- list(c("A", "b", "c"), c(1, 2, 3), matrix(1:4, ncol = 2))
mylist
[[1]]
[1] "A" "b" "c"

[[2]]
[1] 1 2 3

[[3]]
     [,1] [,2]
[1,]    1    3
[2,]    2    4
class(mylist)
[1] "list"

Lists

List elements can be named

mylist_named <- list(
  letters = c("A", "b", "c"),
  numbers = c(1, 2, 3),
  one_matrix = matrix(1:4, ncol = 2)
)
mylist_named
$letters
[1] "A" "b" "c"

$numbers
[1] 1 2 3

$one_matrix
     [,1] [,2]
[1,]    1    3
[2,]    2    4

Special data classes

Dates

There are two most popular R classes used when working with dates and times:

  • Date class representing a calendar date
  • POSIXct class representing a calendar date with hours, minutes, seconds

We convert data from character to Date/POSIXct to use functions to manipulate date/date and time

lubridate is a powerful, widely used R package from “tidyverse” family to work with Date / POSIXct class objects

Creating Date class object

class("2021-06-15")
[1] "character"
library(lubridate)
Warning: package 'lubridate' was built under R version 4.2.2
Warning: package 'timechange' was built under R version 4.2.2
ymd("2021-06-15") # lubridate package
[1] "2021-06-15"
class(ymd("2021-06-15")) # lubridate package
[1] "Date"
class(date("2021-06-15")) # lubridate package
[1] "Date"

Note for function ymd: yyear month day

dates

a <- ymd("2021-06-15")
b <- ymd("2021-06-18")
a - b
Time difference of -3 days

Creating Date class object

This will not work: date() is picky…

date("06/15/2021")

This works though!

mdy("06/15/2021")
[1] "2021-06-15"
mdy("06/15/21")
[1] "2021-06-15"

Note for function mdy: month day yyear

Creating POSIXct class object

class("2013-01-24 19:39:07")
[1] "character"
ymd_hms("2013-01-24 19:39:07") # lubridate package
[1] "2013-01-24 19:39:07 UTC"
class(ymd_hms("2013-01-24 19:39:07")) # lubridate package
[1] "POSIXct" "POSIXt"

UTC represents time zone, by default: Coordinated Universal Time

Note for function ymd_hms: yyear month day hour minute second.

There are functions in case your data have only date, hour and minute (ymd_hm()) or only date and hour (ymd_h()).

Summary

  • two dimensional object classes include: data frames, tibbles, matrices, and lists
  • matrix has columns and rows but is all one data class
    • can create a matrix with matrix() from scratch or as.matrix() from something
  • lists can contain multiples of any other class of data including lists!
    • can create lists with list()
  • calendar dates can be represented with the Date class using ymd(), mdy() functions from lubridate package
  • POSIXct class representing a calendar date with hours, minutes, seconds. Can use ymd_hms() or ymd_hm() or ymd_h()functions from the lubridate package

Lab Part 2

🏠 Class Website
💻 Lab

Extra Slides

Some useful functions from lubridate to manipulate Date objects

x <- ymd(c("2021-06-15", "2021-07-15"))
x
[1] "2021-06-15" "2021-07-15"
day(x) # see also: month(x) , year(x)
[1] 15 15
x + days(10)
[1] "2021-06-25" "2021-07-25"
x + months(1) + days(10)
[1] "2021-07-25" "2021-08-25"
wday(x, label = TRUE)
[1] Tue Thu
Levels: Sun < Mon < Tue < Wed < Thu < Fri < Sat

Some useful functions from lubridate to manipulate POSIXct objects

x <- ymd_hms("2013-01-24 19:39:07")
x
[1] "2013-01-24 19:39:07 UTC"
date(x)
[1] "2013-01-24"
x + hours(3)
[1] "2013-01-24 22:39:07 UTC"
floor_date(x, "1 hour") # see also: ceiling_date()
[1] "2013-01-24 19:00:00 UTC"

Differences in dates

x1 <- ymd(c("2021-06-15"))
x2 <- ymd(c("2021-07-15"))

difftime(x2, x1, units = "weeks")
Time difference of 4.285714 weeks
as.numeric(difftime(x2, x1, units = "weeks"))
[1] 4.285714

Similar can be done with time (e.g. difference in hours).

Data Selection

Matrices

n <- 1:9
n
[1] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
mat <- matrix(n, nrow = 3)
mat
     [,1] [,2] [,3]
[1,]    1    4    7
[2,]    2    5    8
[3,]    3    6    9

Vectors: data selection

To get element(s) of a vector (one-dimensional object):

  • Type the name of the variable and open the rectangular brackets [ ]
  • In the rectangular brackets, type index (/vector of indexes) of element (/elements) you want to pull. In R, indexes start from 1 (not: 0)
x <- c("a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h")
x
[1] "a" "b" "c" "d" "e" "f" "g" "h"
x[2]
[1] "b"
x[c(1, 2, 100)]
[1] "a" "b" NA

Matrices: data selection

Note you cannot use dplyr functions (like select) on matrices. To subset matrix rows and/or columns, use matrix[row_index, column_index].

mat
     [,1] [,2] [,3]
[1,]    1    4    7
[2,]    2    5    8
[3,]    3    6    9
mat[1, 1] # individual entry: row 1, column 1
[1] 1
mat[1, 2] # individual entry: row 1, column 2
[1] 4
mat[1, ] # first row
[1] 1 4 7
mat[, 1] # first column
[1] 1 2 3
mat[c(1, 2), c(2, 3)] # subset of original matrix: two rows and two columns
     [,1] [,2]
[1,]    4    7
[2,]    5    8

Lists: data selection

You can reference data from list using $ (if elements are named) or using [[ ]]

mylist_named[[1]]
[1] "A" "b" "c"
mylist_named[["letters"]] # works only for a list with elements' names
[1] "A" "b" "c"
mylist_named$letters # works only for a list with elements' names
[1] "A" "b" "c"